Peace and reconciliation are central to the process of European integration. Not once since the end of the Second World War has Europe sought to impose its ideas on the rest of the world, other than by setting an example of how to solve problems by negotiation. However, with its emergence as an important economic and trading power, the European Union is increasingly called upon to act as a mediator and a stabilising force in world affairs.
Until it crystallised into a political concept and became the long-term goal of the Memberof the European Community, the European ideal was unknown to all but philosophers and visionaries. The notion of a United States of Europe was part of a humanist-pacifist dream which was shattered by the conflicts which brought so much destruction to the European continent in the first half of this century. The vision of a new Europe which would transcend antagonistic nationalism finally emerged from the resistance movements which had sprung up to resist totalitarianism during the Second World War. Altiero Spinelli, the Italian federalist, and Jean Monnet, the man who provided the inspiration for the Schuman Plan which led to the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, were the main proponents of two approaches, the federalist and the functionalist, which were to provide the impetus for European integration. Central to the federalist approach is the idea that local, regional, national and European authorities should cooperate and complement each other. The functionalist approach, on the other hand, favours a gradual transfer of sovereignty from national to Community level. Today, the two approaches have merged in a conviction that national and regional authorities need to be matched by independent, democratic European institutions with responsibility for those areas in which joint action is more effective than action by individual States: the single market, monetary policy, economic and social cohesion, foreign and security policy, employment policy, environmental protection, foreign and defence policy, the creation of an area of freedom and justice.
In 1998 the European Union is a monument to the dedication of the early pioneers. The Union is an advanced form of multisectoral integration, its competence extending to the economy, industry, politics, citizens' rights and foreign policy of its fifteen member States. The Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (1951), the Treaties of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) (1957), as amended by the Single European Act (1986), the Maastricht Treaty on European Union (1992) and finally the Amsterdam Treaty (1997), form the constitutional basis of the Union, binding its Member States more firmly than any conventional agreement between sovereign States. The European Union generates directly applicable legislation and confers specific rights which can be relied upon by its citizens.
Initially the Community's activities were confined to the creation of a common market in coal and steel between the six founder members (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands). In that post-war period the Community was primarily seen as a way of securing peace by bringing victors and vanquished together within an institutional structure which would allow them to cooperate as equals.
In 1957, three years after the French National Assembly had rejected a European Defence Community, the Six decided to create an economic community, built around the free movement of workers, goods and services. Customs duties on manufactured goods were duly abolished on 1 Julyand common policies, notably an agricultural policy and a commercial policy, were in place by the end of the decade.
The success of the Six led Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom to apply for Community membership. They were finally admitted in 1972 following difficult negotiations during which France, under General de Gaulle, used its veto twice, once in 1961 and again in 1967. This first enlargement, which increased the number of Memberfrom six to nine in 1973, was matched by a deepening of the Community's tasks; it was given responsibility for social, regional and environmental matters.
The need for economic convergence and monetary union became apparent in the early 1970s when the United States suspended dollar convertibility. This marked the beginning of a period of worldwide monetary instability, aggravated by the two oil crises of 1973 and 1979. The launch of a European Monetary System in 1979 helped stabilise exchange rates and encourage Member States to pursue strict economic policies, enabling them to give each other mutual support and benefit from the discipline imposed by an open economic area.
The Community expanded southwards with the accession of Greece in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. These enlargements made it even more imperative to implement structural programmes designed to reduce the disparities between the Twelve in terms of economic development. During this period the Community began to play a more important role internationally, signing new agreements with the countries in the southern Mediterranean and countries in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific, which were linked to the Community by four successive Lomé Conventions (1975, 1979, 1984 and 1989).
With the agreement signed in Marrakesh on 14 April 1994, between all the members of GATT, world trade embarked on a new phase of its development. The European Union, negotiating as a bloc, endeavoured throughout to put its stamp on the negotiations and to have its interests prevail.
Already the world's major trading power, the Union is now working on developing structures which would give it a higher profile on the international stage, the aim being to introduce a common foreign and security policy.
World recession and internal wrangling on the distribution of the financial burden led to a stage of "Europessimism" in the early 1980s. This gave way, from 1985 onwards, to a more hopeful view of the prospects for revitalising the Community. On the basis of a Whitedrawn up in 1985 by the Commission chaired by Jacques Delors, the Community set itself the task of creating a single market by 1 January 1993. The Single Act, signed in February 1986, confirmed this ambitious target and introduced new procedures for adopting associated legislation. It came into force on 1 July 1987.
The collapse of the Berlin Wall, followed by German unification on 3 October 1990, liberation from Soviet control and subsequent democratisation of the countries of central and eastern Europe and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in December 1991, transformed the political structure of Europe. The Member States determined to strengthen their ties and negotiated a new Treaty, the main features of which were agreed at the Maastricht European Council on 9-10 December 1991.
The Treaty on European Union, which entered into force on 1 November 1993, sets the Member States an ambitious programme: monetary union by 1999, new common policies, European citizenship, a common foreign and security policy and internal security. Applying the review clause in the Maastricht Treaty, the Member States negotiated a further treaty, signed in Amsterdam on 2 October 1997, which adapted and strengthened the Union's policies and powers, particularly in judicial cooperation, the free movement of persons, foreign policy and public health. The European Parliament, the Union's immediate democratic voice, was granted new powers, confirming its role as joint legislator.
On 1 January 1995, three further countries joined the European Union. Austria, Finland and Sweden expanded the Union with their specific characters and opened up further dimensions at the heart of central and northern Europe. The Union of Fifteen now faces two major challenges:
Neither of these challenges will be overcome without considerable effort. How can a Union of more than twenty-five members operate without the decision-making mechanisms being strengthened, and without ensuring that policies of solidarity and joint action benefit from funding which is both effective and fair? In more general terms, whilst enlargement will increase the heterogeneous nature of interests and perceptions within the Union, how will the consensus of the Member States be maintained on the major objectives set by Europeans, and the means of achieving them? The European Commission, chaired by Jacques Santer, put forward its "Agenda 2000" in July 1997, on the basis of which the governments embarked on a wide-ranging review of the structural policies and the common agricultural policy.
Henceforth, the Union has no choice but to progress still further along the road towards an organisation which is both efficient and democratic, capable of making decisions and taking action while preserving the identity of its constituent States. Unless it can strengthen its structures and rationalise decision-making the Union will be faced with the prospect of dilution or paralysis. A "Greater Europe" in gestation will only develop into an organised power if it is built in such a way as to be capable of speaking and acting as one.
Almost a half century of European integration has had a profound effect on the development of the continent and the attitudes of its inhabitants. It has also changed the balance of power. All governments, regardless of political complexion, now recognise that the era of absolute national sovereignty is gone. Only by joining forces and working towards a "destiny henceforward shared", to quote the ECSC Treaty, can Europe's old nations continue to enjoy economic and social progress and maintain their influence in the world.
The Community method, which involves a constant balancing of national and common interests, respect for the diversity of national traditions and the forging of a separate identity, is as valid as ever today. Devised as a way of overcoming deep-rooted hostilities, superiority complexes and the warring tendencies so characteristic of relations between States, it kept the democratic nations of Europe united in their commitment to freedom throughout the Cold War. The eclipsing of East-West antagonism and the political and economic reunification of the continent are a triumph for the European spirit, which Europeans need now more than ever as they look to the future.
A major political power or a regional economic grouping? An open trading partner or a protectionist bloc? The European Union means different things to different countries, depending on whether their links with it are economic, diplomatic, cultural or strategic
Amorcé par la réunion des six États fondateurs de la Communauté européenne, qui devinrent neuf en 1973, dix en 1981, douze en 1986 et quinze en 1995, et qui devraient se porter a pres de 25 dans le décennie a venir, le processus d'unification du continent ne cesse d'évoluer. Si les défis de l'apres-guerre imposaient un effort de réconciliation des peuples et de reconstruction des économies de l'Ouest européen, ceux qui se présentent a l'Europe, un demi-siecle apres, sont d'une ampleur équivalente. Les nouvelles démocraties issues de la décomposition du bloc communiste attendent de leurs voisins la solidarité et l'accomplissement d'un nouveau destin commun. L'histoire et la géographie du vieux continent vont enfin se réconcilier.
The European Union, the world's leading trade power, is trying to develop into a political giant. The Maastricht Treaty gives the go-ahead on two requisites for power - a single currency and a common defence policy. It remains to be seen whether the Fifteen will have the political will to pool sovereignty in these key areas.
Key dates in the history of integration
1950
9 May
In a speech inspired by Jean
Monnet, Robert Schuman, the French Foreign Minister, proposes that France,
the Federal Republic of Germany and any other European country wishing to
join them should pool their coal and steel resources.
1951
18 April
The Six sign the Treaty establishing
the European Coal and Steel Community in Paris.
1952
27 May
The Treaty establishing the European
Defence Community is signed in Paris.
1954
30 August
The French Parliament rejects the
EDC Treaty.
20-23 October
Following the London Conference, agreements on
a modified Brussels Treaty are signed in Paris and the Western European
Union comes into being.
1955
1 - 2 June
The Foreign Ministers of the Six,
meeting in Messina, decide to extend European integration to all branches
of the economy.
1957
25 March
The Treaties establishing the
European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community are
signed in Rome.
1958
1 January
The Treaties of Rome enter into
force and the EEC and Euratom Commissions are set up in Brussels.
1960
4 January
The Stockholm Convention
establishing the European Free Trade Association is signed on the
initiative of the United Kingdom.
1962
30 July
A common agricultural policy is
introduced.
1963
14 January
General de Gaulle announces at a
press conference that France will veto the United Kingdom's
accession to the Community.
20 July
An association agreement is signed between the
Community and 18 African countries in Yaoundé.
1965
8 April
A Treaty merging the executives of
the three Communities is signed in Brussels. It enters into force on 1
July 1967.
1966
29 January
The `Luxembourg Compromise' is
agreed, France resuming its seat in the Council in return for retention of
the unanimity requirement where very important interests are at stake.
1968
1 July
Remaining customs duties in
intra-Community trade in manufactured goods are abolished 18 months ahead
of schedule and the Common Customs Tariff is introduced.
1969
1-2 December
At the Hague Summit the
Community's Heads of State or Government decide to bring the transitional
period to an end by adopting definitive arrangements for the common
agricultural policy and agreeing in principle to give the Community its
own resources.
1970
22 April
A Treaty providing for the gradual
introduction of an own resources system is signed in Luxembourg. It also
extends the budgetary powers of the European Parliament.
30 June
Negotiations with four prospective Member States
(Denmark, Ireland, Norway and the United Kingdom) open in Luxembourg.
1972
22 January
The Treaty on the Accession of
Denmark, Ireland, Norway and the United Kingdom is signed in Brussels.
24 April
The currency `snake' is set up, the Six agreeing to
limit the margin of fluctuation between their currencies to 2.25%.
1973
1 January
Denmark, Ireland and the United
Kingdom join the Community (Norway withdrew following a referendum).
1974
9-10 December
At the Paris Summit the
Community's Heads of State or Government decide to meet three times a year
as the European Council, give the go-ahead for direct elections to the
European Parliament by universal suffrage and agree to set up the European
Regional Development Fund.
1975
28 February
A first Convention between the
Community and 46 States in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific is signed
in Lomé.
22 July
A Treaty giving the European Parliament wider
budgetary powers and establishing a Court of Auditors is signed. It enters
into force on 1 June 1977.
1978
6-7 July
At the Bremen European Council France
and Germany present a scheme for closer monetary cooperation (the European
Monetary System) to replace the currency `snake'.
1979
13 March
The EMS starts to operate.
28 May
The Treaty on the Accession of Greece is signed.
7 and 10 June
The first direct elections to the 410-seat
European Parliament are held.
31 October
A second Convention between the Community and 58
States in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific is signed in Lomé.
1981
1 January
Greece joins the Community.
1984
28 February
`Esprit', the European Strategic
Programme for Research and Development in Information Technologies, is
adopted.
14 and 17 June
Direct elections to the European Parliament
are held for the second time.
8 December
A third Lomé Convention between the Ten and the
ACP States, now numbering 66, is signed in Togo.
1985
January
Jacques Delors is appointed President
of the Commission.
2-4 December
At the Luxembourg European Council the Ten agree
to amend the Treaty of Rome and to revitalise the process of European
integration by drawing up a `Single European Act'.
1986
1 January
Spain and Portugal join the
Community.
17 and 28 February
The Single European Act is signed in
Luxembourg and The Hague.
1987
14 April
Turkey applies to join the
Community.
1 July
The Single Act enters into force.
27 October
The WEU adopts a joint security policy platform in
The Hague.
1988
February
Financing of EEC policies reformed.
Multiannual programme of expenditure for 1988-92. Reform of the Structural
Funds.
1989
January
Jacques Delors is reappointed
President of the Commission for a further four years.
15 and 18 June
Direct elections to the European Parliament
are held for the third time.
17 July
Austria applies to join the Community.
9 November
The Berlin Wall is breached.
9 December
The Strasbourg European Council decides to convene
an intergovernmental conference.
15 December
The fourth Lomé Convention with the ACP States is
signed.
1990
29 May
The Agreement establishing the European
Bank for Reconstruction and Development is signed in Paris.
19 June
The Schengen Agreement on the elimination of border
checks is signed.
4 July
Cyprus applies to join the Community.
16 July
Malta applies to join the Community.
3 October
Germany is united once more.
14 December
Two Intergovernmental Conferences, one on
economic and monetary union, the other on political union, open in
Rome.
1991
1 July
Sweden applies to join the
Community.
21 October
Agreement is reached on setting up a European
Economic Area (EEA) linking the Community with its western European
neighbours.
9-10 December
The European Council meets in Maastricht.
1992
7 February
The Treaty on European Union is
signed in Maastricht.
18 March
Finland applies to join the Community.
25 March
Norway applies to join the Community.
2 May
Agreement on the European Economic Area is signed in
Porto.
2 June
Denmark rejects the Maastricht Treaty by
referendum.
20 June
A referendum in Ireland approves the Maastricht
Treaty.
20 September
A referendum in France approves the Maastricht
Treaty.
11 and 12 December
The European Council meets in
Edinburgh.
1993
1 January
Introduction of the single
market.
18 May
The Maastricht Treaty is approved in a second
referendum in Denmark.
1 November
The Maastricht Treaty enters into force.
1994
April
Hungary applies to join the European
Union.
8 April
Poland applies to join the European Union.
15 April
The Final Act of the GATT Uruguay Round negotiations
is signed in Marrakesh.
9 and 12 June
Direct elections to the European Parliament are
held for the fourth time.
A referendum in Austria approves treaty of
accession.
24-25 June
The European Council meets in Corfu.
Treaties
of Accession to the European Union are signed by Austria, Finland, Norway
and Sweden.
16 October
A referendum in Finland approves treaty of
accession.
13 November
A referendum in Sweden approves treaty of
accession.
27-28 November
A referendum in Norway rejects treaty of
accession.
9 December
The European Council meets in Essen.
1995
1 January
Austria, Finland and Sweden join the
Union.
23 January
A new Commission starts work with Jacques Santer
as President (1995-2000).
26 March
The Schengen Agreement comes into force.
2 June
The Reflection Group on a new Intergovernmental
Conference responsible for revising the Treaties holds its first
meeting.
12 June
Europe Agreements with Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania.
22 June
Romania applies to join the Community.
26-27 June
The European Council meets in Cannes. Reflection
Group instructed to prepare for the Intergovernmental Conference.
27 June
Slovakia applies to join the Community.
27 October
Latvia applies to join the Community.
24 November
Estonia applies to join the Community.
27 and 28 November
Euro-Mediterranean Conference in
Barcelona.
8 December
Lithuania applies to join the Community.
14 December
Bulgaria applies to join the Community.
15 and 16 December
Madrid European Council.
1996
16 January
Slovenia applies to join the
Community.
17 January
the Czech Republic applies to join the
Community.
29 March
The Intergovernmental Conference opens at the Turin
European Council.
21 and 22 June
Florence European Council.
13 and 14
December
Dublin European Cuoncil.
1997
17 February
Jacques Santer intervenes on BSE
(bovine spongiform encephalitis or BSE) at the European
Parliament.
16 and 17 June
Amsterdam European
Council.
6 July
Agenda 2000 presented to the European
Parliament.
2 October
"Consolidated" Treaty signed in
Amsterdam
20 and 21 November
Summit on jobs in
Luxembourg.
12 and 13 December
Luxembourg European
Council.
1998
1 January
Britain's Presidency of the
Community starts.
30 March
Membership process of the ten
prospective Member States of central and eastern Europe and Cyprus starts,
followed by bilateral Intergovernmental Conferences, initially with
Cyprus, Hungary, Poland, Estonia, the Czech Republic and
Slovenia.
31 March
Schengen: abolition of immigration
control at Italy's land borders.
1 - 3 May
European
Council of Finance Ministers and European Council. Decision on Member
States ready to enter the 3rd stage of the EMU.
15 and 16
June
Cardiff European Council.
1 July
Austria's
Presidency of the Community starts.
1999
1 January
Germany's Presidency of the
Community starts.
Spring
European elections.
1
July
Finland's Presidency of the Community starts.
1
December
Greece enters the Schengen area.
2000
1 January
Portugal's Presidency of the
Community starts.
1 July
France's Presidency of the
Community starts.
2002
1 January
Euro coins and notes come into
circulation.
1 July
Coins and notes in national currency
withdrawn.
European Commities
